An alternative history of the major theoretical concepts that have shaped international economics since mercantilist times. It shows that the policies of laissez-faire and free trade adopted by institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF have had a devastating effect on developing countries, leading to greater polarisation rather than to convergence. The author's analysis demonstrates the importance of debunking economic orthodoxy and reassessing instead the value of protectionist and structuralist approaches to trade and development.